Link Between Oil Prices And Rubber Prices Economics Essay

Link Between Oil Prices And Rubber Prices Economics Essay Abstract It goes without saying that in contemporary world rubber has become very popular material due to its eco-friendly technology. The environmental question has become more and more significant and it increases the popularity of natural rubber en mass. It should be noted that synthetic rubber, which is made from oil won its popularity much earlier than the natural rubber, due to its cheap price. It wont be a secret that the oil is used for manufacturing the synthetic rubber: synthetic rubber, a replacement for natural rubber, depends on the price of crude oil (CommodityOnline, 2010). This research would reveal what relationship exist between rubber market and what factors determine the price of the rubber and their correlation with the oil market prices. With the help of different research methodologies it was revealed that the natural rubber prices have direct dependence on the oil price due the fact that synthetic rubber is manufactured from the crude oil, thus it could hardly avoid th e impact on the rubber market. This research uses Thailand as the major platform for investigation the rubber market. It would also reveal the methods of rubber manufacturing (as synthetic, as well as the natural) describing how the price is formed, which factors determine it and what are the major global impact provided on the rubber market Thailand Introduction As it was mentioned earlier the rubber (especially natural rubber) is becoming more and more popular due to increased disturbance about environmental problems and it is one of the most burning questions in the contemporary world. Factories and plant of Thailand nowadays are involved in production huge amounts of rubber (natural) and working on the suggestion effective solutions that will assist sustainability. But there also exist synthetic rubber, which also impacts the rubber market. That is why the hypothesis for this report would be the following statement. The final rubber price is determined not only by the purchasing power, but by the commodity price, in particular oil This research would contain several parts. Abstract, briefly describing the research; introduction, providing hypothesis; methodology, revealing the means of research process; literature review, investigating the sources used for the research discussion, showing the peculiarities of the research process; results dealing with the findings of this report; and conclusion would provide summary of the report findings Methodology The theme was chosen because it is one of the most acute economical questions in Thailand, Asian region and the whole worlds, as the formation of the purchase powers involve the different region, but the price on the rubber is formed locally in Thailand. Speaking about the participants of the research it would be essential to note that there was made no significant division on evaluating on the manufacturing the rubber, which are to be implemented on the factories. Hence it should be noted that the economical aspects as well as details of manufacturing, as well as vision of contemporary investigators on this case provided significant impact on this research process of this investigation. According to the different investigators rubber, which is manufactured in Thailand is exported all over the world and is considered to be quite valuable commodity: Rubber is one part of life of the people of the South, related both to the culture and economy of the last 108 years. The monoculture pro duction system has replaced a traditional system of rubber forests, where rubber used to be grown in amongst fruit orchards and natural forests known as a suan somrom or integrated garden. Rubber plantations have been promoted through the governments Welfare Fund for Rubber Plantations (Sayamol Kaiyoorawong, p. 2). The qualitative and quantitative methods alongside with the peer review of the other researches works became the basis of her investigation. It is essential that such a theme as evaluation how the oil price impacts the formation of the rubber price needs various issues of data collection that would help to illustrate the statistical data from different point of view. Among the suggested ones there are could be observed: Using available information. Academic literature peer review would help to make a historical observation of the set problem. How it was related to by the governmental forces and what were the results. Observing. Observation of statistical data on governmental web sites and forums, alongside different statistical data provided on the criminal justice archives. Would provide evident statistics which either prove or confute the local data and would help to provide comparative analysis in different areas. Every of this methods used for the data collection are very important for this research, as it would make certain contribution in the whole research process, characterizing local achievements and drawbacks on the background of the global ones and providing comparison of different factors impact on the formation of the price. It would be essential to take into account the fact that there would be one single source, which requires critical examination The suggested research design alongside with the applied methods made the bases of the research, held by the author. As the core materials used different statistical information and investigations that date back to the different stages of the question investigation. The author reviewed the problem from the different sides and this let the reader to get the full information about the observed case. The structural division and various ideas upon the discussed question make this report easy readable and well structured, presenting all the necessary information for those who are interested in this question. Literature Review Academic literary sources such as magazine articles and books benefit a lot to the understanding of the approaches used to investigate the economical situation on Thai rubber market, the globalization impact, local political factors (in particular Thai government activity), correlation between rubber and oil pricing and aspects of rubber manufacturing process. They benefited a lot to the understanding raised issue in the particular area and place, as from the historical perspective as rubber is valuable export commodity in Thailand for more than 100 years (Sayamol Kaiyoorawong, p. 2), as well within the contemporary economical situation. It would be important to note that there were used sources, that date back to the different historical periods and it helped to evaluate the raised social issue and observe the difference between the military and civilians in different historical perspectives. Economic Change in Thailand, 1850-1970 by James C. Ingram provided really important informa tive data dealing with the historical development of rubber manufacturing in Thailand, the formation of the industry and the formation of the price on natural rubber. The author made a significant stress on the fact that the rubber manufacturing is strongly important for the economical development of Thailand: An estimate of the Department of Agriculture for 1937 put the area in fruits at 1,900,000 rai, mostly in the Central and Southern regions; and the area in vegetables at 105,000 rai, mostly in the Central region. The third crop is rubber. Accurate statistics of acreage are difficult to obtain, but a recent estimate put the area in rubber as high as 2,000,000 rai in 1950. More will be said of the rubber industry when we discuss other exports. Rubber and rice are the only agricultural crops which are important exports, and rubber is a relative newcomer. (James C. Ingram, 1971, p. 51). It goes without saying that being so valuable commodity for the whole country rubber economical position is quite high, as rubber plants provide a number of workplaces in agricultural region of the country for more than 100 years and increasing during the last 20 years a lot. It would be important to note that there was used information from non-academic sources, which tell more about the state of things in the most recent times, describing the current situation on the rubber market, examining the facts that impact formation of the price and discusses economical value of this commodity for the country, region and the whole world. The magazine and newspaper articles giver relevant informational data about rubber market, rubber production and examine the factors impacting the price of the commodity globally and locally. Evaluating the rubber market and the process of manufacturing the investigators reveal close connection other commodity has to people, who have already become the participants of the manufacturing processes (as for synthetic as well as for the natural rubber). Political Decentralisation and the Resurgence of Regional Identities in Thailand by Patrick Jory, published in Australian Journal of Social Issues is one of the best illustrative examp les how does the rubber manufacturing industry and the commodity itself impacted by the local Thai government, how the governmental changes could impact the rubber market, determining the price of the commodity. The article tells about participation of governmental and political institutions in the life of rubber industry and how this could affect the industry and the people working there: One of the targets of the attack on the Democrats-led government was its support for the ailing rubber industry, a major industry in the Democrats heartland of southern Thailand. So gradually, regionalism is beginning to influence alignments on the Thai political scene. (Patrick Jory, 1999, p. 337). The peculiar organization of rubber manufacturing attracts a number of investigators, as in the present day realities, numerous ecological catastrophes this eco-friendly material is winning more popularity. What is more important about the natural rubber manufacturing process is the fact that it is man ufactured in eco-friendly ways. Thus is the sustainable waste recycling the natural rubber increase its domination over the synthetic analogue and is highly appreciated by the representatives of constructional industry, who promote sustainable solutions for bioclimatic architecture and it is actually not surprising. It should be noted that bioclimatic architecture and eco-design are not just a modern trend. People, who work at the factories and use the tools that correspond to the norms of sustainable waste recycling ideas consider that the increased interest and quick development of sustainable vision within the different life aspects is the sharpening of the environmental question and awareness and understanding of the scrutinized situation by the different people. It should be noted that the idea of bioclimatic architecture is also supported by the government forces (such as European Commission), this also characterize design vision as a rapidly developed environmental solution. Thus the purchasing powers increase The authors focus on the importance of such collaborative programs between manufacturers and constructional and design industries who deal with the eco-friendly solutions as the ecological situation in present day realities is really significant problem and it is possible to avoid the following situation described by the organization World Rainforest Movement, Sayamol Kaiyoorawong: The promotion of the expansion of the rubber area by the Rubber Welfare Fund Office, an increasing price for rubber, and the strong global market demand for natural rubber for industrial processing into a variety of industrial rubber goods has led to the expansion of the rubber plantations area and an encroachment into the forests of the South and also into the woodlots of the North Eastern region which make up a large part of the natural forest of the East. Rubber is a non-native species which the government has promoted, and both the Royal Forest Department and the Forest Industry Organization aim to gen erate economic income to the organization from commercial plantations of rubber (Sayamol Kaiyoorawong 2008). The society understand the core importance of the importance and potential of rubber for development of Thailand, but the same time local newspapers and magazines consider that rubber price could hardly be significantly impacted by the local officials, government etc. The major countries, which determine the price on the commodity are those who export it from Thailand Japan and the United States of America: The international market, complete control over the supply of natural rubber in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia the hands of a few countries. The use of natural rubber big country the United States, Japan, not the production of natural rubber, demand depends entirely on imports, its natural rubber price support are also evident. China is also the worlds second largest importer of natural rubber on international Jiaojia more direct influence (Industry News, 2010). Thus im pacting the rubber formation price exterior forces, which do not depend on the local factors, the same time include oil price in the formation of the price on natural rubber, as synthetic rubber is manufactured from oil and the average price on both commodities is formed accordingly: Similarly, prices of crude oil would also leave its imprint on rubber prices. Prices of natural rubber and crude oil have a co-relation as synthetic rubber, a replacement for natural rubber, depends on the price of crude oil. Crude oil prices have risen to around $90 a barrel, and are expected to remain firm as demand expands (CommodityOnline, 2010) Discussion Manufacturing Process As it was mentioned earlier natural rubber price increased due its eco friendly manufacturing. The major components of rubber either natural or synthetic caoutchouc, filled in with sulfur and other additives to make the rubber have certain qualities, which are necessary for further manufacturing. If you make a hole in heve a tree, then latex would be pouring from it and after the latex is dried in the sun then we get natural caoutchouc or rubber. What is interesting about rubber that syntactic rubber vail to the natural by its qualities but their cost is almost the same there exist different recipes of rubber and due to its natural qualities and ecology friendly manufacturing its further manufacturing process deals with different environment friendly solutions. HARBEC Plastics, Inc in their Every Day Is Earth Day at HARBEC (2009) claims that they have found effective technology that could assist in development of sustainable design solutions and benefit to the waste recycling: Enviro nmentally responsible manufacturers find ways to reduce their impact on the environment. Often a single solution will have a positive effect on several aspects. The goal is to manage manufacturing processes to conserve resources and prevent pollution (HARBEC Plastics, Inc., 2009). Injection molding is a type of manufacturing process used for producing parts from both: as thermoplastic as well as thermosetting plastic materials. They are poured into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a mold cavity where they cool and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, the molds are made by a moldmaker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum. And finally by precision-machine method the features of the desired part are formed. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing of different things: from the smallest component to entire body panels of cars, for example. Extrusion molding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods, and fibers. The machine is used to extrude materials and this method is very similar to injection molding machine. A motor turns a screw, which pours granules of plastic through a heater. The granules melt into a liquid, which is forced through a die, forming a long tube like shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusions are then cooled and form a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon and cut at equal intervals if necessary. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes produced from extrusion could be T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. One of the most famous products of extrusion molding is the fiber optic. Thus there is a huge row of sustainable materials, which are recyclable, and could benefit to the development of the sustainable design, for example natural rubber. The production of tin and rubber was undertaken because of the stimulus of a favorable world-market price and to satisfy an external demand. Virtually the entire output of tin and rubber has always been exported. Domestic consumption is a negligible part of the total product, and the small amount consumed is usually embodied in imported manufactured products rather than processed domestically (James C. Ingram1971, p. 51). Rubber Price Formation and Its Economical Value Speaking about historical perspective of rubber price formation it should be noted that in the 19th century rubber was not the central exporting commodity in Thailand, but 100 years passed and the situation changed: Tin and teak have long been important export commodities, while rubber is a relative newcomer. Exports in 1850 were quite varied and no single product accounted for a very large part of the total. After 1850, rice and tin became the first products to dominate the export list. Teak became important in the latter part of the nineteenth century, while rubber has become a major export only in recent decades (James C. Ingram, 1971, p. 93). The twentieth century technological revolution let the manufacturers to develop synthetic rubber, which is made from the crude oil: Natural Rubber and Synthetic in certain products can replace the use of each other, so when the supply of natural rubber price trend tension or high tide, Synthetic rubber consumption will rise, the market position of both the existence complementary. In addition, as Synthetic yes petrochemical products, oil prices will affect the price level. Synthetic rubber can be transformed into changes in the price level affect the demand for natural rubber, this is also not be ignored (Industry News, 2011). As it was mentioned earlier both rubbers as synthetic as well as natural have almost the same price and oil impacts the formation of natural rubber price as its synthetic analogue and the same time competitor also impacts the overall rubber market. The observers note that every day could bring a record on the rubber price: Another day, another record price for rubber. Two years ago south-east Asian producers were talking about grubbing up rubber trees in an attempt to bolster the price of latex. They didnt do it, and just as well growing demand and tight supply have driven prices up into previously uncharted territory. On Wednesday, Thai rubber (RSS3) was up 5c at $4.95/kilo, more than four times its December 2008 price of $1.10/kg (Tim Johnston, 2010). The price are growing tremendously for the recent years and Thialand, which is one the leaders in exporting rubber increase the prices due to the growing demands in commodity. The major rubber consumers (approximately 60%) need natural late for production of different vehicle tires. The global popularity on the hybrid cars and the investigators consider that such a booming increase is the result of global interest towards the global commodities. The same time some investigators and economical analysts consider that that now formation of the price on rubber market seems to lose its traditi onal connection to the oil prices and now is formed due the connection to the other products (Tim Johnston, 2010). The same time analysts could not avoid ageing that the price still is also depending by the other traditional pressures. Returning again to the historical background, it would be important to note that rubber was exported to Japan and United States since the times of WWII: In 1940-41 there was an increase in rubber exports through Bangkok to Japan and the United States. Japan alone took 12 percent and 50 percent of Thai rubber exports in 1940 and 1941. Since the war, direct shipments of both tin and rubber to the United States have greatly increased. In 1947 and 1948 about 75 percent of tin exports (metallic content) went to the United States, but in 1949 and 1950 the amount dropped to 41 percent and 29 percent (James C. Ingram1971, p. 97). These exporting traditions could be observed even now. But in the present day realities, when the vast majority of manufacturing po wers are removed from the well developed countries to the countries of the third world there was made a significant shift in the market demands . In particular the current boom in Chinese automotive market and even sluggish recovery in the western countries, the final consumers are still buying the new tires, which determine the development of the market. The statistical data tells us that Thailand is worlds largest producer of the rubber exporting 10m tones a year (Tim Johnston, 2010). Among the relevant factors that could impact the development of the industry is the weather. The first half of 2010 was signified by significant dry in Thailand and it negatively reflected on the harvest, and in the second part of the year in major productive areas there was observed floods, which also could hardly avoid the impact. Demand is growing faster than supply, said Chayo Trangadisaikul, the president of the Federation of Thai Industries Rubber-based Industries Club, but he says there is als o a technical element. Towards the end of the year, the statistics come out and they show were not going to have enough rubber, he said. (Tim Johnston, 2010). The popularity of the synthetic rubber is undoubtedly resulted by these natural disasters, and it is a well known fact that price formation of the synthetic rubber directly depends on the price of oil. The results chapter would provide the foundlings made during the discussion. Governmental Impact on Formation the Price The investigators consider that even now the dependence on the oil price is still present, even the commodity is gaining such a correlation, becoming more and more independent. This occurs due the governmental programs, which are aimed on the development of the industry and expanding manufacturing powers. Thai government understand how important export commodity rubber is and for the recent years the governmental programs and changes provide only positive impact on the development of the industry, benefiting to the expanding not only in Thailand but in the whole region of South East Asia. As it was mentioned earlier expanding of the manufacturing powers does not lower the price as the recent powers are much lower than the customers need, thus governmental programs benefit not only to the infrastructure development, but also contributing a lot to the natural rubber popularity and ousting of the synthetic analogue. Some green activists consider that Thai government damage local environ ment, but it should be noted that governmental programs support planting of the trees for manufacturing purpose, again influencing on the formation of the rubber price Results As it was mentioned earlier the price formation depends on numerous factors. The following graph demonstrates rubber price in Singapore since 1960 to 2005 Rubber price, Singapore RSS 1 fob in bales, 1960 2005 And now it is increasing significantly. It goes without saying that such local factors as natural disasters, political reforms and changes of government in Thailand could hardly avoid impacting the formation of price and the economical value of the natural rubber. The major competitor synthetic rubber, despite the number of disadvantages is still very popular too, as due to the mentioned negative impact (especially weather and natural conditions) the needed natural rubber is replaced by the synthetic analogue. But there is observed mutual dependence: Natural rubber is particularly exposed to developments in the automotive industry, itself highly sensitive to economic rebound or recession. Also, and although technical requirements might constrain the ease of substituting SR for NR, the share of NR in rubber consumption is likely to be affected by the price of its synthetic rubber (SR) substitutes, which is in turn strongly influenced by development in oil prices. The higher oil price s are, the more attractive natural rubber is (UNCTAD, 2010). The international analysts consider that such mutual dependence have developed since the beginning of the 21st century and not the least role there played not only increase of oil price but the environmental issues raising and sharpening: Thus, since the early 2000s, it appears that NR prices have been gaining additional support from high and rising oil prices, via synthetic rubber prices (which rose in response to the strength of feedstock prices). Besides changes at the fundamental level, currency movements may play a part in rubber price developments (UNCTAD, 2010). Conclusion In the end it would be essential to return to the very beginning. The hypothesis set was to reveal whether The final rubber price is determined not only by the purchasing power, but by the commodity price, in particular oil or not. The different sources of the research argued that this connected in the recent times could be referred as doubtful. But still the vast majority of investigators recognize that the oil price impacts the formation of final rubber price, equally with natural and governmental factors. International analysts made quite an optimistic prognosis for the recent future for the commodity, stressing on the fact that the impact of oil price is lowering and possibly could be vanished soon, replaced by the more essential and traditional factors (local government and nature) as well as purchasing demands of the final customer

South Korean-Business Etiquette and Cultural Aspects

â€Å"Welcome to South Korea†. This will more than likely be the greeting one hears when arriving in South Korea on a business trip. Knowing as much about the country and its people will be extremely important to your visit. It’s also important to know as much about the language, their customs and culture as humanly possible, but for this paper we will focus on business practices and etiquette. Some of the business topics we need to discuss are where is Korea, Business Meeting Etiquette, Business Dress Attire, Giving and Receiving of Business Cards, Giving and Receiving of Business Gifts, Business Dining and Entertainment, and Business women. South Korea is the southern part of the Korean Peninsula divided by the de-militarized zone (DMZ) with North Korea at the upper half of the peninsula bordered with China in Southeast Asia. The Koreans were liberated from the Japanese (35 years of colonial rule) after World War II and the country was split in half at the 38th parallel as the spoils of war, with the south being occupied by the Americans and the north being occupied by the Russians. The DMZ (de-militarized zone) was established after the Korean War. South Korea has had a hard and turbulent history however, as of today; the country is an enormous economic success and has become the third largest economy in Southeast Asia just behind Japan and China. It has also, just elected its first woman president ever (Park, Geun-hye) who takes office this February 2013. President Park is the 60 year old daughter of the former military styled dictator president that took over the country back in 1961 until 1979 (President Park, Chung-hee) he was assassinated in 1979. It’s also important to know as much about the people, language, their customs and culture as humanly possible, but for this paper we will focus on business practices and etiquette. Some of the business topics we need to discuss are, Business Meeting Etiquette, Business Dress Attire, Giving and Receiving of Business Cards, Giving and Receiving of Business Gifts, Business Dining and Entertainment, The Business Meeting Etiquette is as follows; always make your meeting well in advance 2 to 3 weeks prior, and either for mid-morning or mid-afternoon. When meeting for the first time always have your most senior person introduced first and down the line by authority. Koreans are very particular about authority and ranking. When shaking hands always use your left hand holding the right hand out while shaking and with a slight bow of the head is most acceptable. Be punctual at all meetings, it’s a sign of respect. If possible an interpreter is always useful in the language barrier. All pertinent paper work, contracts, manuals, brochures or paper documentation should also be written in Korean. Be direct when you communicate with slight pauses in between different points to be made. Koreans are more interested in making personal relationships, before forming business relationships. Always address the most senior authority in the meeting by his title and then his last name, (as well as the others in descending order of authority). One note to remember Koreans don’t like to be touched unless its family or a close friend be careful of any overt touching. Have patience, Koreans like to make decisions in a group collectively. Don’t expect one person to give you a final answer on anything. The Business Dress Attire should always be clean, (for men) dark suit with plain dress shirt and tie, socks and dress shoes. The tie should be tied, shirt tucked in and shoes polished (the professional look works best). It should go without mentioning, hair combed, shaved and teeth brushed. No flashy jewelry other than a watch and a ring. For women professionals it should be the same basics apply except no real short dresses or tight pants and no excessive cleavage showing off the breast, plus no stripper heels, (again the professional look works best). The same applies to jewelry as men Giving and Receiving of Business Cards, when giving out your card hold with both hands and extend outward with a slight head bow until taken. Whenever possible have the back of the card translated into Korean (either by interpreter or professionally done) and as you hand it off have the Korean language facing up to the taker of the card. When receiving a Koreans business card never writ on it or stuff it in your pocket, this is considered rude. The card is an extension of them and they want you to relish it, so look at it closely and admire it as much as possible. It is best to have a nice card case or portfolio to place the card in once you think it’s safe to do so. The Giving and Receiving of Business Gifts should be a mutual exchange. Koreans see it as a part of the personal relationship there experiencing with you. If you receive a gift you are expected to give a gift of equal value. When giving a gift, use two hands extended out to give it and with a slight head bow. When you receive a gift, use two hands to except it and with a slight head bow. However, do not open the gift without the givers permission because this is considered rude. Only wrap gifts in bright colors. The Business Dining or Entertainment, sometimes when dining at someone’s home or even out at a restaurant the Korean custom is to remove your shoes before entering the building. You always wait until you’re told where to sit for the meal. The most senior person in age is the first person who starts the eating process. Some of the time the meal is usually a quiet time for a family to concentrate on eating. You must eat everything on your plate or it is considered an insult toward the host. Eating with someone is a sign of building a friendship or personal relationship. You are never supposed to pour your own drink but it is perfectly alright to pour someone else’s. Leave a little drink in the bottom of the glass if you are finished drinking and do not want any more to drink. Korean’s see tipping as an insult and you are not required to tip unless otherwise told so. Many times business men like to go out on the town or to the bars for drinks and business talk. The Korean business men are known for being big drinkers and if you get invited out, you must accept or you have insulted your guest in the eyes of the Koreans. Also, the Koreans love Karaoke As strange as many of these different customs may seem to an American, I can actually see that the Korean people have some pretty neat customs. They have been around a lot longer than Americans have and they’re a very proud people of their heritage. When looking at some of these customs it makes one wonder how many different customs there must be that seem a little quirky from all countries. There are multitudes of business practices that should be reviewed by any and all business professionals before leaving their own country for business etiquette and cultural aspects. The only way that business professionals can be a successful organization in another country is to learn as much about the country their going to as is humanly possible.

Politeness and Pragmatics in the Cross-Cultural Communication Essay

Introduction In this paper, we will examine the Natural Order Hypothesis which was first introduced by Stephen Krashen in the late 1970s and 1980s. Krashen proposed the Second Language Acquisition Theory with five hypotheses. The Natural Order Hypothesis is a part of this second language theory. This hypothesis claims that learners of second language acquire the grammatical structures in a predictable way. It includes that some grammatical structures acquired naturally earlier than the others and this synchronization does not affected by the learners’ native language, age or any condition of exposure. Using a case study approach we will observe whether this claim is valid in Bangladeshi context or not. To examine that how the Natural Order Hypothesis works in Bangladeshi context, we have chosen some Bangladeshi people from different ages. Some the students of first semester and second semester of University of Liberal Arts Bangladesh. We have asked them to answer some certain questions which have added in the last section. This paper is divided into several chapters. The first section of the paper introduces with the five hypotheses of Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition. The hypotheses are demonstrated one by one because all the hypotheses are interrelated. This part is concluded with some main points of criticism about the Natural Order Hypothesis. The next section of the paper analyses our examinations about the hypothesis. It includes the Findings and Results of the study. The last section of the paper explains recommendations and conclusion where we have given our opinion. Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition Stephen Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition is well accepted widely in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s. This theory consists of five hypotheses. These are the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. The explanations of these hypotheses are given below. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis states that there are two ways to  develop second language proficiency for adult learners. One is ‘acquisition system’ and another one is ‘learned system’. According to Krashen, the ‘acquisition system’ is a subconscious process. In this system, it is claimed that the development of the L2 proficiency goes through naturally. More like the way children acquire their first language. The learners acquire language without knowing about that acquisition is taking place. The main point is that learners develop proficiency through using language in meaningful conversations where the focus is on meaning not in the rules of language. On the other hand, ‘learned system’ is referred to ‘knowing about’ language. According to Krashen, the ‘learned system’ is a conscious and explicit process. Through this system learners learn about the language as a conscious study of formal instructions. That means the two systems are totally opposite. Krashen states that acquisition is more important to develop second language proficiency. Learning cannot lead to acquisition. He adds that conscious rule of ‘learned system’ only performs as one function; Monitor or editor. So the error correction occurs in ‘learned system’ which affects in learning language. But error cannot affect in case of acquiring language because in development of L2 proficiency, ‘acquired system’ only gives learner a ‘feel’ of error subconsciously. To demonstrate the Acquisition- Learning hypothesis, Krashen also denies about Noam Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (Device). Chomsky claims that humans are born with the instinct or â€Å"innate facility† for acquiring language. There is a ‘black box’ in every person’s brain and it acquires any language before puberty. Krashen disagrees and says that acquisition of second language can also happen after puberty. He further explains that LAD also works for adult but that does not mean that adult will always acquire second language as native speaker. He claims that LAD function also works for adult second language acquisition. The distinction between ‘acquisition system’ and ‘learned system’ can be seen in the table given below. The Monitor Hypothesis Stephen Krashen explains in the Monitor Hypothesis that how acquisition and learning are used in second language performance. This hypothesis holds the theory that utterance in L2 is initiated by the acquired system at first and after that the learned system works if there is any need of changes. Krashen includes that utterance of L2 happens generally through acquired linguistic competence. The role of learned system is work as a Monitor or editor. To use Monitor successfully, Krashen gives three conditions. These are time, focus of form and know the rule. 1. Time: The first condition explains that the acquirer must have enough time to apply the Monitor. The problem regarding this condition is, during normal conversation one cannot look after the time. If someone tries to use the Monitor he/she will fail to utter in right time or if someone tries to maintain the time he/she will fail to use the Monitor. The important part is that this condition can be applied only in case of advanced acquirers who use Monitor occasionally. 2. Focus on Form: The second condition instructs that the acquirers must focus on form of the language. The acquirers must think about the correctness of the form. But the problem is using Monitor with focusing on form is really tough. To maintain this condition one can lose the track whether he/she will Monitor what he/she is saying or he/she will Monitor how is he/she saying it. 3. Know the rule: The third condition is the acquirer must know the rule of language. It is very difficult condition to maintain because everyone does not know about all the rules. Even the best students may not know all the rules of the language which they are exposed to. So, these are the three conditions which drive to use Monitor successfully. But later on Krashen has mentioned only about the focus on form and know the  rule. He did not mention about the first condition ‘time’. Learnt knowledge (Monitoring) Acquired knowledge Output Figure: Model of adult second language performance On the other hand, Krashen has explained about three individual differences regarding use of the Monitor though the difficulties of three conditions remain dissolved. According to him, there are three types of Monitor users. Monitor over-users, Monitor under- users and the Optimal Monitor users. 1. Monitor over-users: This type of people use the Monitor all the time. They always check their output with the conscious knowledge of the language. Krashen claims two causes for this type of Monitor users. Firstly, they acquire language with the restriction of grammar instruction. Secondly, they may have acquired a good amount of second language but can not trust their acquired competence. That is why they always try check and cover their mistakes by using Monitor. So, they speak hesitantly and try to correct their utterances at the middle of a conversation. 2. Monitor under users: These types of people whether acquire language not learning or they do not prefer to use their conscious knowledge. Actually they do not use the conscious knowledge even when the three conditions are met. The self-correction happen only from a ‘feel’ of correctness. 3. The Optimal Monitor users: The optimal users are the people who apply the Monitor when it is necessary and appropriate. They know how to combine their learned competence with their acquired competence. They never use the grammar rules in their regular conversation because it can interfere in their utterances. This type of users most of the time achieve like the  native speaker in writing and planned speech. The Natural Order Hypothesis: According to Krashen the Natural Order Hypothesis deals with the grammar structures. The hypothesis explains that grammatical structures are acquired in predictable order. This order does not follow any rules that the easier grammar rule will be at first and then the complex one. It claims that there are some certain grammatical structures which acquired early by the learners of second language acquisition and then the others and it is for any given language. Krashen explains that the claim does not prove as 100% always, but there are some significant similarities. Krashen actually adopted this hypothesis from the study of Dulay and Burt’s study of what they called the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by five to eight year old children learning English as a second language (1974). They established a chart of morphemes for their study. So, Krashen adopt the idea of English morphemes and established his Natural Order Hypothesis. Krashen believed that there was no difference regarding the synchronization of the grammar structures. But later on Krashen develops his own idea about the order. He examines the study with both children and adult’s second language and illustrates the natural order of grammar structure according to his point of view. Table: Average order of second language acquisition in English. In further description about the Natural Order Hypothesis Krashen explains three facts. * Krashen claims that natural order cannot be changed. Teacher cannot change the order through drills or exercises. If a teacher tries to drill a certain rule for several weeks the result will be zero. Because the acquirer will only acquire language when it is ready to acquire the certain rule. This fact is very much related to the Affective Filter Hypothesis. * The natural order of grammar structures do not depend on any obvious feature. It can go through complex to easier or easier to complex. Some rules acquired later which are quite simple. On the other hand some rues acquired earlier which seem to be difficult in structures. It shows that curriculum designers might face problem that which one they should put earlier and which one in later. * The third fact is that the natural order is not the teaching order. So, if someone predicts that through learning the grammar structures he or she will acquire language proficiency, he/she might wrong. Because Krashen applied the Natural Order Hypothesis to extend the idea of ‘the Input Hypothesis’. The Natural Order Hypothesis actually helps to know how the comprehensible input can be acquired one by one. So the learners will acquire the language in a natural order as a result of getting this comprehensible input. Criticism of Natural Order Hypothesis: Krashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis faces many criticisms about the predictable natural order in second language learners’ acquisition of grammatical structure. His using of English morphemes as a model also causes criticisms. There are some important criticisms which really force linguists to rethink about Krashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis. These are, * Krashen claims that all L2 learners adopt the same nature of acquiring language to attain proficiency. However there is some individuality between learners. Every learner does not go through the same order of morphemes to  learn grammar rules. Some adopts the -ing form at first and later on go through the other rules step by step. On the other hand some adopts the pronoun case (he/she, his/her etc.) at first. So, Krashen’s hypothesis does not concern about individuality. * Another criticism explains that all languages do not have the same morphemes. Some languages do not have the function of Copula or definite/indefinite article. So as a result the learners from this type of languages face problem acquiring the morphemes though these are the simplest one. The learners pick up the morpheme according to their first language acquisition. Here, Krashen actually totally overlooked the possibility of the influence of L1 on L2. On the other hand he also ignored the role of negative and positive transferences. * Krashen claims that his model of natural order works for both adult and children. Critics raised questions about this generalization. That how did Krashen judge it as the both applied natural order for adult and children. Did the judgment was from instrument and task specific? A critic named Larsen-Freeman applied Krashen’s natural order model for both the adult second language learners and children second language learners and she found that the model really works but when she put it in some different tasks using different instruments, she could not found any similarity between adult learners score and children learners score. So, Krashen’s claim proved itself as unreliable because it does not work for every situation. So these are the criticisms regarding Krashen’s Natural Order Hypothesis. To evaluate our case study we have taken the help of these criticisms and we also found some problems in Bangladeshi context. The evaluation has given in the Analysis part. The Input Hypothesis: The Input Hypothesis gives the answer of the question that how we acquire language. Regarding this hypothesis Krashen states that, the learners acquire language by understanding input which is slightly beyond their  competence. He also adds that when the learners understand the messages of a language, they acquire language. The main theory of this hypothesis is ‘i+1’. Here ‘i’ is learners’ present competence and ‘i+1’ is the input of the language which can be understood by the learners. Krashen calls this ‘i+1’ as the comprehensible input. He not only states that but also strongly claims that ‘comprehending message’ can help to acquire language and there is no other fundamental process of language acquisition. Another point he claims that listening and reading comprehension are the primary important function of second language acquisition. There is one important point which should be noted that the Input Hypothesis and the Natural Order Hypothesis are interrelated. These two are combined to answer the question of how we move from one stage to another of acquisition. That means, Natural Order Hypothesis works for analyzing the Input Hypothesis that how learners move from ‘i’ to ‘i+1’. The Natural Order Hypothesis helps to decide that which one should be the comprehensible input or ‘i+1’ in the classroom. There are two corollaries in the Input Hypothesis. These are, 1. The first corollary is that speaking is not the cause of language fluency but the result of language accuracy. It cannot be taught directly. It is acquired through comprehensible input. 2. The second corollary is, if there is enough amount of comprehensible input the learner will automatically acquire competence from the teacher. There is no need to use grammar structure. That means there is no need to be finely tuned input which means the exact next grammar structure as ‘i+1’. It can also be roughly tuned input, like the nearer structures from the ‘i’. So, from this hypothesis we can understand that there is no need to use energy in acquiring language. The main important part is just to understand the messages. When we understand the messages of second language, the LAD starts to work. This is how we acquire language. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: The Affective Filter Hypothesis describes us that how people face obstacles to acquire second language. It tells us about a filter named ‘affective filter’ which works as an obstacle in the way of acquiring language. The affective filter does not work directly as a barrier but creates a ‘mental block’ in brain which prevents to acquire language. Krashen explains that if the affective filter is down then the comprehensible input reaches to the LAD and acquires competence but if the affective filter is up then the input does not reach to the LAD and acquisition does not happen. Krashen includes that there are some ‘affective variables’ which control this affective filter. The affective variables include motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. This variables help to acquire second language very easily. But if someone has low motivation, low self-esteem and debilitating anxiety the student will face difficulties to acquire language. Because these low motivation, low self- esteem and anxiety will ‘raise’ his affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ which will become an obstacle to understand the input and acquire language. So, the Affective Filter Hypothesis helps to determine that why a specific learner faces problem in dealing the comprehensible input though he/she has reached a native- like competence. The main point is one should have motivation, self-confidence and low anxiety if he/she wants to acquire second language. Many critics raised question against Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition. Some of them are reliable and the rest of them are from anti- Krashenites. From our opinion, though Krashen has applied many statements to prove his theory but the Natural Order Hypothesis really lacks in reliable informations. The hypothesis could not set with our Bangladeshi context. The discussion has given in the next section.

Theories of the Origin and Evolution of Human Language

The expression language origins refers to theories pertaining to the emergence and development of language in human societies. Over the centuries, many theories have been put forward—and almost all of them have been challenged, discounted, and ridiculed. (See Where Does Language Come From?) In 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris banned any discussion of the topic: The Society will accept no communication concerning either the origin of language or the creation of a universal language. Contemporary linguist Robbins Burling says that anyone who has read widely in the literature on language origins cannot escape a sneaking sympathy with the Paris linguists. Reams of nonsense have been written about the subject (The Talking Ape, 2005). In recent decades, however, scholars from such diverse fields as genetics, anthropology, and cognitive science have been engaged, as Christine Kenneally says, in a cross-discipline, multidimensional treasure hunt to find out how language began. It is, she says, the hardest problem in science today (The First Word, 2007). Observations on the Origins of Language Divine origin [is the] conjecture that human language originated as a gift from God. No scholar takes this idea seriously today. (R.L. Trask, A Students Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 1997; rpt. Routledge, 2014) Numerous and varied explanations have been put forth to explain how humans acquired language—many of which date back to the time of the Paris ban. Some of the more fanciful explanations have been given nicknames, mainly to the effect of dismissal by ridicule. The scenario by which language evolved in humans to assist the coordination of working together (as on the pre-historic equivalent of a loading dock) has been nicknamed the yo-heave-ho model. Theres the bow-wow model in which language originated as imitations of animal cries. In the poo-poo model, language started from emotional interjections. During the twentieth century, and particularly its last few decades, discussion of language origins has become respectable and even fashionable. One major problem remains, however; most models about language origins do not readily lend themselves to the formation of testable hypotheses, or rigorous testing of any sort. What data will allow us to conclude that one model or another best explains how language arose? (Norman A. Johnson, Darwinian Detectives: Revealing the Natural History of Genes and Genomes. Oxford University Press, 2007) Physical Adaptations - Instead of looking at types of sounds as the source of human speech, we can look at the types of physical features humans possess, especially those that are distinct from other creatures, which may have been able to support speech production. . . . Human teeth are upright, not slanting outwards like those of apes, and they are roughly even in height. Such characteristics are . . . very helpful in making sounds such as f or v. Human lips have much more intricate muscle lacing than is found in other primates and their resulting flexibility certainly helps in making sounds like p, b, and m. In fact, the b and m sounds are the most widely attested in the vocalizations made by human infants during their first year, no matter which language their parents are using. (George Yule, The Study of Language, 5th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2014) -   In the evolution of the human vocal tract since the split with other apes, the adult larynx descended to its lower position. Phonetician Philip Lieberman has persuasively argued that the ultimate cause of the human lowered larynx is its function in producing different vowels. This is a case of natural selection for more effective communication. . . . Babies are born with their larynxes in a high position, like monkeys. This is functional, as there is a reduced risk of choking, and babies are not yet talking. . . . By about the end of the first year, the human larynx descends to its near-adult lowered position. This is a case of ontogeny recapitulating phylogeny, the growth of the individual reflecting the evolution of the species. (James R. Hurford, The Origins of Language. Oxford University Press, 2014) From Words to Syntax Language-ready modern children learn vocabulary voraciously before they begin to make grammatical utterances several words long. So we presume that in the origins of language a one-word stage preceded our remote ancestors first steps into grammar. The term protolanguage has been widely used to describe this one-word stage, where there is vocabulary but no grammar. (James R. Hurford, The Origins of Language. Oxford University Press, 2014) The Gesture Theory of Language Origin - Speculation about how languages originate and evolve has had an important place in the history of ideas, and it has been intimately linked to questions about the nature of the signed languages of the deaf and human gestural behavior in general. It can be argued, from a phylogenetic perspective, the origin of human sign languages is coincident with the origin of human languages; sign languages, that is, are likely to have been the first true languages. This is not a new perspective--it is perhaps as old as nonreligious speculation about the way human language may have begun. (David F. Armstrong and Sherman E. Wilcox, The Gestural Origin of Language. Oxford University Press, 2007) - [A]n analysis of the physical structure of visible gesture provides insights into the origins of syntax, perhaps the most difficult question facing students of the origin and evolution of language . . .. It is the origin of syntax that transforms naming into language, by enabling human beings to comment on and think about the relationships between things and events, that is, by enabling them to articulate complex thoughts and, most important, share them with others. . . . We are not the first to suggest a gestural origin of language. [Gordon] Hewes (1973; 1974; 1976) was one of the first modern proponents of a gestural origins theory. [Adam] Kendon (1991: 215) also suggests that the first kind of behaviour that could be said to be functioning in anything like a linguistic fashion would have had to have been gestural. For Kendon, as for most others who consider gestural origins of language, gestures are placed in opposition to speech and vocalization. . . . While we would agree with Kendons strategy of examining the relationships among spoken and signed languages, pantomime, graphic depiction, and other modes of human representation, we are not convinced that placing gesture in opposition to speech leads to a productive framework for understanding the emergence of cognition and language. For us, the answer to the question, If language began as gesture, why did it not stay that way? is that it did. . . . All language, in the words of Ulrich Neisser (1976), is articulatory gesturing. We are not proposing that language began as gesture and became vocal. Language has been and always will be gestural (at least until we evolve a reliable and universal capacity for mental telepathy). (David F. Armstrong, William C. Stokoe, and Sherman E. Wilcox, Gesture and the Nature of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1995) - If, with [Dwight] Whitney, we think of language as a complex of instrumentalities which serve in the expression of thought (as he would say--one might not wish to put it quite like this today), then gesture is part of language. For those of us with an interest in language conceived of in this way, our task must include working out all the intricate ways in which gesture is used in relation to speech and of showing the circumstances in which the organization of each is differentiated from the other as well as the ways in which they overlap. This can only enrich our understanding of how these instrumentalities function. If, on the other hand, we define language in structural terms, thus excluding from consideration most, if not all, of the kinds of gestural usages I have illustrated today, we may be in danger of missing important features of how language, so defined, actually succeeds as an instrument of communication. Such a structural definition is valuable as a matter of convenien ce, as a way of delimiting a field of concern. On the other hand, from the point of view of a comprehensive theory of how humans do all the things they do by means of utterances, it cannot be sufficient. (Adam Kendon, Language and Gesture: Unity or Duality? Language and Gesture, ed. by David McNeill. Cambridge University Press, 2000) Language as a Device for Bonding [T]he size of human social groups gives rise to a serious problem: grooming is the mechanism that is used to bond social groups among primates, but human groups are so large that it would be impossible to invest enough time in grooming to bond groups of this size effectively. The alternative suggestion, then, is that language evolved as a device for bonding large social groups--in other words, as a form of grooming-at-a-distance. The kind of information that language was designed to carry was not about the physical world, but rather about the social world. Note that the issue here is not the evolution of grammar as such, but the evolution of language. Grammar would have been equally useful whether language evolved to subserve a social or a technological function. (Robin I.A. Dunbar, The Origin and Subsequent Evolution of Language. Language Evolution, ed. by Morten H. Christiansen and Simon Kirby. Oxford University Press, 2003) Otto Jespersen on Language as Play (1922) - [P]rimitive speakers were not reticent and reserved beings, but youthful men and women babbling merrily on, without being so particular about the meaning of each word. . . . They chattered away for the mere pleasure of chattering . . ..   [P]rimitive speech . . . resembles the speech of little baby himself, before he begins to frame his own language after the pattern of the grownups; the language of our remote forefathers was like that ceaseless humming and crooning with which no thoughts are as yet connected, which merely amuses and delights the little one. Language originated as play, and the organs of speech were first trained in this singing sport of idle hours. (Otto Jespersen,Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin, 1922) - It is quite interesting to note that these modern views [on the commonality of language and music and of language and dance] were anticipated in great detail by Jespersen (1922: 392-442). In his speculations about the origin of language, he arrived at the view that referential language must have been preceded by singing, which in its turn was functional in fulfilling the need for sex (or love), on the one hand, and the need for coordinating collective work, on the other. These speculations have, in turn, their origins in [Charles] Darwins 1871 book The Descent of Man: we may conclude from a widely-spread analogy that this power would have been especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes, serving to express various emotions. . . . The imitation by articulate sounds of musical cries might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions. (quoted from Howard 1982: 70) The modern scholars mentioned above agree in rejecting the well-known scenario according to which language originated as a system of monosyllabic grunt-like sounds that had the (referential) function of pointing at things. Instead, they propose a scenario according to which referential meaning was slowly grafted upon nearly autonomous melodious sound. (Esa Itkonen, Analogy as Structure and Process: Approaches in Linguistics, Cognitive Psychology and Philosophy of Science. John Benjamins, 2005) Divided Views on the Origins of Language (2016) Today, opinion on the matter of language origins is still deeply divided. On the one hand, there are those who feel that language is so complex, and so deeply ingrained in the human condition, that it must have evolved slowly over immense periods of time. Indeed, some believe that its roots go all the way back to  Homo habilis, a tiny-brained hominid that lived in Africa not far short of two million years ago. On the other, there are those like [Robert] Berwick and [Noam] Chomsky who believe that humans acquired language quite recently, in an abrupt event. Nobody is in the middle on this one, except to the extent that different extinct hominid species are seen as the inaugurators of language’s slow evolutionary trajectory. That this deep dichotomy of viewpoint has been able to persist (not only among linguists, but among paleoanthropologists, archaeologists, cognitive scientists, and others) for as long as anyone can remember is due to one simple fact: at least until the very recent advent of writing systems, language has left no trace in any durable record. Whether any early humans possessed language, or didn’t, has had to be inferred from indirect proxy indicators. And views have diverged greatly on the matter of what is an acceptable proxy. (Ian Tattersall, At the Birth of Language.   The New York Review of Books, August 18, 2016) Also  See Where Does Language Come From?: Five Theories on the Origins of Language Cognitive Linguistics  and  Neurolinguistics